Albert Einstein

Albert Einstein was born at Ulm, in Württemberg, Germany, on March 14, 1879. Six weeks later the family moved to Munich, where he later on began his schooling at the Luitpold Gymnasium. Later, they moved to Italy and Albert continued his education at Aarau, Switzerland and in 1896 he entered the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich to be trained as a teacher in physics and mathematics. In 1901, the year he gained his diploma, he acquired Swiss citizenship and, as he was unable to find a teaching post, he accepted a position as technical assistant in the Swiss Patent Office. In 1905 he obtained his doctor's degree.During his stay at the Patent Office, and in his spare time, he produced much of his remarkable work and in 1908 he was appointed Privatdozent in Berne. In 1909 he became Professor Extraordinary at Zurich, in 1911 Professor of Theoretical Physics at Prague, returning to Zurich in the following year to fill a similar post. In 1914 he was appointed Director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Physical Institute and Professor in the University of Berlin. He became a German citizen in 1914 and remained in Berlin until 1933 when he renounced his citizenship for political reasons and emigrated to America to take the position of Professor of Theoretical Physics at Princeton*. He became a United States citizen in 1940 and retired from his post in 1945.After World War II, Einstein was a leading figure in the World Government Movement, he was offered the Presidency of the State of Israel, which he declined, and he collaborated with Dr. Chaim Weizmann in establishing the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.Einstein always appeared to have a clear view of the problems of physics and the determination to solve them. He had a strategy of his own and was able to visualize the main stages on the way to his goal. He regarded his major achievements as mere stepping-stones for the next advance.At the start of his scientific work, Einstein realized the inadequacies of Newtonian mechanics and his special theory of relativity stemmed from an attempt to reconcile the laws of mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. He dealt with classical problems of statistical mechanics and problems in which they were merged with quantum theory: this led to an explanation of the Brownian movement of molecules. He investigated the thermal properties of light with a low radiation density and his observations laid the foundation of the photon theory of light.In his early days in Berlin, Einstein postulated that the correct interpretation of the special theory of relativity must also furnish a theory of gravitation and in 1916 he published his paper on the general theory of relativity. During this time he also contributed to the problems of the theory of radiation and statistical mechanics.In the 1920's, Einstein embarked on the construction of unified field theories, although he continued to work on the probabilistic interpretation of quantum theory, and he persevered with this work in America. He contributed to statistical mechanics by his development of the quantum theory of a monatomic gas and he has also accomplished valuable work in connection with atomic transition probabilities and relativistic cosmology.After his retirement he continued to work towards the unification of the basic concepts of physics, taking the opposite approach, geometrisation, to the majority of physicists.Einstein's researches are, of course, well chronicled and his more important works include Special Theory of Relativity (1905), Relativity (English translations, 1920 and 1950), General Theory of Relativity (1916), Investigations on Theory of Brownian Movement (1926), and The Evolution of Physics (1938). Among his non-scientific works, About Zionism (1930), Why War? (1933), My Philosophy (1934), and Out of My Later Years (1950) are perhaps the most important.Albert Einstein received honorary doctorate degrees in science, medicine and philosophy from many European and American universities. During the 1920's he lectured in Europe, America and the Far East and he was awarded Fellowships or Memberships of all the leading scientific academies throughout the world. He gained numerous awards in recognition of his work, including the Copley Medal of the Royal Society of London in 1925, and the Franklin Medal of the Franklin Institute in 1935.Einstein's gifts inevitably resulted in his dwelling much in intellectual solitude and, for relaxation, music played an important part in his life. He married Mileva Maric in 1903 and they had a daughter and two sons; their marriage was dissolved in 1919 and in the same year he married his cousin, Elsa Löwenthal, who died in 1936. He died on April 18, 1955 at Princeton, New Jersey.

Cadastere

Cadastre
A cadastre (also spelt cadaster), using a cadastral survey[1] or cadastral map, is a comprehensive register of the metes-and-bounds real property of a country. A cadastre commonly includes details of the ownership, the tenure, the precise location (some include GPS coordinates), the dimensions (and area), the cultivations if rural and the value of individual parcels of land. Cadastres are used by many nations around the world,[1] some in conjunction with other records, such as a title register.
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in most countries, legal systems have developed around the original administrative systems and use the cadastre as a means of defining the dimensions and location of land parcels described in legal documentation. This leads to the use of the cadastre as a fundamental source of data in disputes and lawsuits between landowners.
In the United States, Cadastral Survey within the Bureau of Land Management is responsible for maintaining records of all public lands. Such surveys often required detailed investigation of the history of land use, legal accounts and other documents.
Etymology
The word "cadastre" came into English by way of French, itself from Late Latin capitastrum, a register of the poll tax, and the Greek κατάστιχον [katastikhon], a list or register, from κατά στίχον [kata stikhon], literally, "down the line", in the sense of "line by line" along the directions and distances between the corners mentioned and marked by monuments in the metes and bounds.
The word forms the adjective cadastral, used in public administration, primarily for ownership and taxation purposes. The terminology used for cadastral divisions may include counties, parishes, ridings, hundreds, sections, lots, blocks and city blocks.
Cadastral surveys
Cadastral surveys are used to document land ownership, by the production of documents, diagrams, sketches, plans (plats in USA), charts, and maps. They were originally used to ensure reliable facts for land valuation and taxation. An example from early England is the Domesday Book. Napoleon established a comprehensive cadastral system for France which is regarded as the fore-runner of most modern versions. Cadastral survey information is often a base element in Geographic/Land Information systems used to assess and manage land and built infrastructure. Such systems are also employed on a variety of other tasks, for example, to track long-term changes over time for geological or ecological studies, where land tenure is a significant part of the scenario.


Legal surveys
The NLS carries out legal surveys outside city plan areas. Three quarters of legal surveys concern parcelling. Legal surveys are carried out by District Survey Offices.
Types of legal survey
 Partitioning means the division of real estate in specific proportions. Partitioning is done when the joint owners of the real estate wish to divide it up between themselves.
 A private road survey means the establishment, removal or any other rearrangement of access rights.
 A resurvey of boundaries is done when a boundary mark has been lost or something else is unclear about the boundaries.
 Other legal surveys may include a land-for-land exchange, easement survey, redemption of alluvial areas, transfer of a land area to a real estate in a city plan area, and redemption of a part of a lot or construction site in a town plan area.
For more information on the application of legal surveys and related matters, contact your local District Survey Office .

Cadastral map
A cadastral map is a map showing the boundaries and ownership of land parcels. Some cadastral maps show additional details, such as survey district names, unique identifying numbers for parcels, certificate of title numbers, positions of existing structures, section and/or lot numbers and their respective areas, adjoining and adjacent street names, selected boundary dimensions and references to prior maps.
Scott, in Seeing Like a State has argued that all maps, but particularly cadastral maps, are designed to make local situations tangible to an outsider, and in doing so enabling states to collect data on its subjects. He sees the origins of this in Early Modern Europe, where taxation became more complex. Cadastral maps, he argues, are always a great simplification, but they in themselves help change reality

Abu Ali al-Hasan Ibn Al-Haitham

Abu Ali al-Hasan Ibn Al-Haitham
Aussprache: abu ali al-hasan ibn-al-haithamarabisch: أبو علي الحسن بن الهيثمpersisch: ابن هیثمenglisch: Ibn al-Haytham
965 - 1040 n.Chr.
Bild: Alhazens Portrait auf einem irakischen Geldschein
Abu Ali al-Hasan Ibn Al-Haitham der im Deutschen unter Alhazen und im Arabischen unter Ibn al-Haitham bekannt ist war ein bedeutender arabischer Mathematiker und Astronom. Besondere wissenschaftliche Beiträge brachte er auf dem Gebiet der Optik und der experimentellen Methodik. Für seine Experimente auf diesem Gebiet gab man ihn den Beinamen "Vater der Optik". Er wurde um 965 n.Chr. in Basra in eine schiitische Familie geboren.
Er wurde an den Hof Mansurs berufen um den Fluss des Nil nach Kairo zu regulieren. Er brachte es dort bis zum Amt eines Wesirs. Im anschluss widmete er sich dem von Mansur gegründeten Haus der Weisheit der Wissenschaft.
In seinen zahlreichen mathematischen Werken beschäftigte er sich mit Problemen der Geometrie. Von größter geschichtlich-wissenschaftlicher Bedeutung sind jedoch seine optischen Experimente: Die meisten Wissenschaftler, darunter Euklid und Ptolemäus, nahmen damals an, dass so genannte „Sehstrahlen“, die vom menschlichen Auge ausgehen sollten, die Umgebung abtasteten und so den visuellen Eindruck im Gehirn erzeugten - ähnlich einem Blinden, der seine Umgebung mit einem Stab abtastet. Aristoteles hingegen war der Ansicht, dass Licht unabhängig vom menschlichen Auge existierte und sich über ein Medium seinen Weg von den Gegenständen in das Auge bahne. Alhazen jedoch ging auf neue Weise an die Frage heran, indem er den Aufbau des Auges analysierte. Er erkannte die Bedeutung der Linse im Auge und widerlegte in wissenschaftlichen Experimenten die Sehstrahlen-Theorie. Auch verfeinerte und erweiterte er die Theorien Ptolemäus' zur Lichtbrechung und Lichtreflexion; insbesondere hat er die Eignung gewölbter Glasoberflächen zur optischen Vergrößerung erkannt und beschrieben. Mit diesen Erkenntnissen stellte er erste Leselupen aus Glas her. Damit gilt er als Erfinder der Lupe und inspirierte wahrscheinlich mit seinen Schriften Roger Bacon zur Erfindung der Brille.
Ausgehend von seinen Erkenntnissen auf dem Gebiet der Optik entdeckte Alhazen, dass das Brechungsgesetz auch für die Lufthülle der Erde gilt. Er stellte auch fest, dass der Mond sowohl am Horizont als auch im Zenit die gleiche Größe hat. Er erkannte also den scheinbar größeren Durchmesser des Mondes in Horizontnähe als eine Wahrnehmungstäuschung, die später als Mondtäuschung bekannt wurde. Auch berechnete er die Höhe der Atmosphäre aus der Beobachtung von Sonnenuntergängen.
Auch machte er sich um die Wissenschaftstheorie verdient: Als erster wandte er systematisch die induktiv-experimentelle wissenschaftliche Arbeitsweise an; bis dahin war es üblich, Erkenntnisse nur durch logische Schlussfolgerungen zu gewinnen und Experimente allenfalls zur Veranschaulichung der so gefundenen Theorien durchzuführen.
Alhazen inspirierte noch Jahrhunderte später viele bekannte Wissenschaftler mit seinen Werken, so unter anderem Witelo, der Alhazens berühmtestes Werk Kitab-al Manazir (Buch der Wahrnehmungslehre) 1270 n.Chr. ins Lateinische übersetzte, und Johannes Kepler.
Alhazen gilt als einer der größten Physiker des Mittelalters. Er starb 1040 n.Chr. in Kairo.
Sowohl der Asteroid mit der Nummer 59239 als auch die größte iranische Laseranlage in Teheran sind zu Ehren Alhazens benannt

I had a dream

I had a dream…
I dreamed I was walking along the beach with God. Across the sky flashed scene from my life. For each scene I noticed tow sets of footprints; one belonging to me and the other to God. When the last scene of my life flashed before me, I looked back at the footprints in the sand. I noticed many times along the path of my life. There was only one set of footprints. I also noticed that it happened at the very lowest and saddest times in my life.
This really bothered me, so I questioned God about it “God, you said that once I decided to follow you, you would walk with me all the way. But I have noticed that during the most trouble sometimes in my life, there is only one set of footprints. I don’t understand why when I needed you most you would leave me.”
God replied:” my precious, precious child; I love you and I would never leave you. During your times of trial and suffering, when you see only one set of footprints, it was then that I carried you.”